Exploitability of Maritime Fleet-Based 5G Network Extension

Abstract

This paper analyzes the exploitability, economic viability, and impact of fleet-based 5G network extensions implemented in maritime environments, focusing on the Baltic Sea and Mediterranean as a case study. Through cost–benefit analysis and business model validation, we demonstrate how multi-hop 5G connectivity can reduce communication costs while improving service quality for maritime operators.

Our findings indicate that implementing vessel-based 5G relay stations can achieve 80–90% coverage in key maritime corridors with a break-even period of 2–3 years. The study reveals that combining vessel-to-vessel relaying with strategic floating base stations can reduce connectivity costs by up to 40% compared to traditional satellite solutions, while enabling new revenue streams through premium services.

We provide a detailed economic framework for evaluating similar implementations across different maritime routes and suggest policy recommendations for facilitating cross-border 5G maritime networks, and introduce key use cases for network-extension value creation.

1. Introduction

The maritime industry's digital transformation is increasingly dependent on reliable, high-speed connectivity. While 5G technology promises to revolutionize maritime communications, its implementation in marine environments presents unique economic challenges and opportunities. Traditional satellite-based solutions, while providing wide coverage, often involve prohibitive costs and higher latency rates that limit their effectiveness for modern maritime applications.

Recent technological advances in multi-hop 5G connectivity present an opportunity to revolutionize maritime communications while potentially reducing operational costs. However, the economic viability of such implementations, particularly in cross-border scenarios, remains understudied. This research addresses this gap by providing a comprehensive analysis of the economic impact of fleet-based 5G network extensions, using the Baltic Sea and Mediterranean as a case study.

In this paper, the authors use results gained from field trials to credibly deliver a validated results-based cost/benefit analysis on the developed technologies and services. The outcome includes a consolidated and verified description of new business opportunities based on qualitative and quantitative assessments of 5G-ROUTES ecosystems, through stakeholder-based evaluation and validation, and maritime use case analysis based on real ship movement data. For data modeling and economic value analysis, we use AIS-based data modeling and logistics/travel data in Northern Europe (North and Baltic Sea) and Southern Europe (Mediterranean/Aegean Sea) covering around 1.5 billion data points, extending 5G coverage for maritime applications through strategically placed floating base stations.

2. Background

Maritime connectivity solutions have traditionally relied on a combination of terrestrial networks near coastlines and satellite communications for open-sea operations, but struggle to meet rising bandwidth demands cost-effectively [1–4]. Today's most common solutions (Table 1) are: onshore high masts (coastal up to 100 km, <50 ms, high bandwidth), LEO satellites (global, 20–40 ms, high), hybrid solutions (global, varying, high), and geostationary satellites (global, 500–700 ms, medium). Integrating multiple technologies enables seamless optimized connectivity, but requires devices managing link switching, e.g. Software-Defined Networking (SDN) [5], which distributes traffic, provides failover redundancy, and selects the most efficient path by cost, bandwidth, latency and reliability [6] — implemented in shipping by operators such as Stena Lines with Nowhere Networks [7].

The maritime sector has unique characteristics — interdisciplinarity, public and international interests and governance, limited sea resources, large investments and long implementation periods — making its development effects reach beyond sectoral boundaries, with the maritime cluster concept amplifying regional economic impact. The cluster comprises [8]: traditional activities (shipping, ports, shipbuilding/repair and marine equipment), maritime services (logistics, transport, classification, finance, insurance), and related sectors (fishing, tourism, offshore technology, public sector). Porelli et al. [9] studied boosting seaport competitiveness via 5G; Saeed et al. [11] explored maritime connectivity, trade and growth links; Li et al. [12] studied port connectivity and regional growth; Bekteshi et al. [13] analyzed shipping connectivity effects on environment and growth; the 5G-ROUTES project validates its ecosystems' business case [14] and maritime connectivity contributes to UN Sustainable Development Goal 8 [15], cutting costs through fleet management and fuel savings [16, 17].

Deploying maritime 5G extensions demands a clear regulatory framework and standardization for interoperability, reliability and seamless cross-border connectivity: spectrum allocation and cross-border frequency coordination under international ITU-guided agreements to prevent harmful interference, with emission limits, power-density parameters and coordination processes. GDPR compliance and jurisdiction-varying maritime spectrum licensing add complexity, alongside the need for critical remote-interference coordination frameworks for operational reliability and spectrum management in cross-border scenarios.

Advanced communication technologies can enhance operational efficiency, safety and environmental monitoring across [18]: transport and logistics optimization; fleet and infrastructure management; passenger transport and consumer data services; search and rescue (SAR); environmental monitoring; port operations and security; offshore fleet teleoperations; fishing; digital twins of fleets, routes and logistics; and defense and military security. In passenger transport, premium-experience demand is reshaping the market, with global virtual collaboration projected to grow from USD 11.56 billion in 2020 to USD 57.23 billion by 2026, with ferries enabling immersive cross-border VR meetings despite seamless-5G-handover and GDPR challenges [18]. In logistics, the EU's eFTI regulation (mandatory freight-data digitization from 2027) [19] drives demand for real-time tracking platforms, and vessels as moving base stations extend 5G coverage [18], with tankers, cargo ships and cruise liners providing ample coverage [20–22].

Fifth-generation access for fishing boats enhances operations and safety via real-time navigation, weather and oceanographic data, cutting fuel use and enabling remote emergency reporting and real-time video streaming for supply-chain transparency [23]. Advanced IoT across fish farms — underwater sensors and cameras monitoring temperature, salinity, pH and oxygen in real time — enables timely decisions improving fish health and yield [23], alongside autonomous vehicles and drones for inspection and feeding, and AI-driven predictive modeling of environmental risks such as algal blooms [23], with growing opportunities in 6G [24, 25]. Defense and security benefit from the Internet of Battlefield Things (IoBT) and real-time situational awareness [26] with data and processing security [27, 28], autonomous vehicles and drones for reconnaissance, AR/VR training tools, and network slicing for secure dedicated channels [27, 29, 30].

Maritime communication is crucial amid dramatically increasing oceanic activities, and the main challenge is covering large open-water areas via ship-to-ship connections [31]. Literature [32] identified a gap on deploying, testing and trialing actual mobile networks with satellite and multi-hop components at sea — a core 5G-ROUTES goal — including a measurement campaign concluding terrestrial networks cannot guarantee sufficient coverage [33]. 3GPP proposed Integrated Access and Backhaul (IAB) to cut fiber-deployment costs [34], after fixed and moving multi-hop relaying was proposed back in 2004 [35] for cost reduction and capacity enhancement, later expanded in Releases 16 and 17 [34–36] and presented by Ericsson in 2020 [37]. As a further option, mobile IAB (mIAB) cells expected after 3GPP Release 18 should enhance moving-UE service and avoid simultaneous-handover signaling storms [38], using a macro cell as donor to IAB nodes over wireless backhaul hops to save infrastructure costs [39]. The planned trials use sub-6 GHz spectrum rather than mmWave given its expected cross-border seamless-connectivity disadvantages [32], with a simplified routing strategy for optimal bandwidth usage [39].

3. Methodology

Our study employs a comprehensive approach (Figure 5) integrating spatial analysis, economic assessment and business-validation methodologies to evaluate 5G maritime network feasibility across European maritime regions. A hexagonal grid methodology with 1 km side lengths models coverage requirements — the best approximation of signal propagation without cell overlap while preserving omnidirectional capacity, with computational efficiency [42]. Ship-track analysis used PostGIS 3.0 for spatiotemporal patterns across two datasets: the Danish Straits [43] and the Aegean Sea [44], with provider-preprocessed data (no raw AIS decoding) stored in a PostGIS database as a single PostgreSQL table with: unique identifier, MMSI code, UTC timestamp, speed and course over ground, vessel category, and EPSG:3857 geometry.

Ships were classified into broad categories: Cargo (including hazardous materials), Fishing (distinct movement patterns), Passenger (including high-speed craft), Pleasure (non-commercial), SAR (specialized function), Service (tugs, pilots, dredging, law enforcement), Tankers (specific design/cargo), and Other. Trajectories were computed from timestamps and coordinates as geometric objects with Z-coordinate timestamps for efficient spatiotemporal analysis [18], each hexagonal cell spatially joined by ship tracks (Figure 6). For spatial relationships between types, Pearson correlation coefficients were computed per pair into a correlation matrix. For coverage optimization, an iterative batch-addition algorithm was reused until full coverage (Figure 7) [18].

Ship coverage by base stations in the hexagonal grid is quantified by Equation (1): Coverageships(i,j) = ∑ Stotal(i,j)·Cov(i,j) / ∑ Stotal(i,j), where Stotal is the total ships in the cell and Cov a binary coverage indicator. Area coverage follows Equation (2): Coveragearea(i,j) = ∑ Ah·Cov(i,j) / ∑ Ah, where Ah is the hexagonal cell area (approximately 2.6 km2). Cell potential coverage from placing a base station is given by Equation (3): PC(i,j) ≥ ∑ Stotal(a,b)·Cov(a,b) over potentially covered neighboring cells. Base-station allocation is formulated as an optimization: minimize station count while ensuring adequate traffic coverage, with binary placement decision variables and per-cell data on vessel types and distance to land.

To assess dual-use economic feasibility, a comparative cost–benefit framework analyzes 5G infrastructure supporting emergency services and maritime safety, incorporating SAR data from the hexagonal grid analysis to identify optimal drone deployment patterns from historical emergency-response needs. Operational cost benchmarks for traditional helicopter operations (acquisition, maintenance, personnel, operations) were contrasted with estimated 5G-enabled drone costs, with break-even analysis under dedicated and shared cost scenarios in both regions, factoring region-specific coverage requirements from the base-station optimization and the distinct geography and emergency-response patterns of the Danish Straits and Aegean Sea.

4. Results

Maritime traffic in the Danish Straits and Aegean Sea shows distinct characteristics shaping 5G strategies: analyzing 382,543 cells in the Danish Straits and 206,267 in the Aegean (Figure 8), the Straits concentrate cargo and tanker vessels at about 64% of traffic — a strategic lane linking the Baltic to global routes — with an exceptionally strong cargo–tanker correlation (r = 0.87) creating predictable corridors (Figure 9), statistically significant (Mann–Whitney U and Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests, p < 0.001). The Aegean differs markedly: cargo 58.1%, tankers 22.3%, lower fishing (1.2% vs 7.2%) and pleasure shares (5.6% vs 10.4%), but far wider spatial coverage — cargo in 99.0% of cells vs 80.9%, tankers in 97.3% vs 58.6% — reflecting complex archipelagic geography with diffuse patterns versus the channelized Straits. Correlation patterns differ too: a distinctive 'other'–pleasure correlation in the Aegean (r = 0.59 vs 0.21, island tourism), versus stronger service-vessel correlations in the Straits (r = 0.58 with 'other', r = 0.45 with cargo), indicating integrated lane support operations (Figure 10).

Base-station deployment analysis reveals major efficiency differences: 50% area coverage in the Aegean needs only 144 stations versus 474 in the Straits (nearly 70% fewer), persisting to 99% (606 vs 2714 — 78% fewer) as in Figure 12. For ship coverage: 390 vs 456 stations at 50%, and 1007 vs 1660 at 99%, so the archipelago actually facilitates coverage despite its complexity. Optimization strategies (Figure 13) differ: in the Straits, ship-based optimization clearly wins (1135 vs 1419 stations for 90% ship coverage — 20% fewer), reflecting channelized traffic, while in the Aegean differences are milder (888 ship-optimized for 90% ship coverage vs 562 area-optimized for 90% area coverage) given stronger geography–ship-coverage correlation. Diminishing-returns curves (Figure 14) show a sharp Straits threshold near 1200 stations (the final 10% needs 460 more stations — ~40% extra infrastructure), versus a gradual Aegean pattern inflecting near 700 stations. Implementation guidance: Straits — ship-optimized lane deployment targeting 80–90% (1102–1135 stations) with satellite for the final increment; Aegean — target 90–95% (562–722 area or 888–941 ship stations) leveraging island geography. Ship-based optimization generally wins, but its advantage varies regionally.

Dual-use applications substantially enhance economic feasibility: analyzing SAR data (15.1% of Straits cells with moderate passenger r = 0.18 and pleasure r = 0.33 correlations; 14.0% in the Aegean with weaker r = 0.04 and r = 0.05), 5G infrastructure enables edge-computing drones as force multipliers or helicopter alternatives. Helicopter costs: EUR 3000–8000 per flight hour, EUR 800,000–1,200,000 annual maintenance, EUR 500,000–700,000 crew training/readiness, EUR 1,000,000–2,000,000 base facilities [45]; limitations: 60–70% weather readiness, 45–60 min response, 3–4 h endurance, poor-visibility weakness. Drone costs: EUR 80,000–150,000 per high-endurance unit, EUR 15,000–25,000 annual maintenance, EUR 5000–10,000 edge computing, EUR 50,000–100,000 control stations; advantages: >90% readiness, <15 min response, swarm capability, continuous rotation operation, AI-driven sensing; network needs: one station per 20–25 km2, 100 Mbps per active drone, edge computing, 99.9% availability. Tables 2–3 show savings: EUR 5.1M vs 1.85M annual totals (−EUR 3.25M differential), EUR 8000 vs 500 hourly cost (16×), 800–1000 vs 8000–10,000 annual hours (10×), 45–60 vs 10–15 min response (4×), 6× coverage per unit cost. Optimal infrastructure (Table 4): 942 Straits stations (EUR 94.2M capex, 18.8M annual opex) and 722 Aegean (72.2M, 14.4M), but shared commercial-cost models cut attributable SAR costs by up to 80%, with break-even of 7.5 years unshared / 1.9 years shared in the Straits and 5.6 / 0.8 years in the Aegean — plus 85% better incident detection, 70% faster response, 300% simultaneous-incident capacity, cross-domain uses (environmental monitoring, fisheries enforcement, border security, research) and commercial-service integration.

The defense use-case analysis addresses close-proximity naval LOS communications using high-performance private 5G to augment ship–ship, ship–amphibious and ship–shore connectivity as low-latency, high-capacity augmentation to TACSAT, CNR and subnet-relay communications, plus subsea critical-infrastructure (pipes, cables) sensor monitoring over 5G. The distinctive value: seamless high-quality at-sea coverage, enhanced QoS, spoofing/jamming detection, lower operational costs, quick local setup, mass UE access with cheap terminals, and easy replacement. Private 5G beats satellite/proprietary military links on security (military-grade encryption, dedicated infrastructure), ultra-low latency for real-time decisions, high bandwidth for HD video/IoBT/autonomy/AR feeds, network slicing for mission-critical prioritization, and long-term cost-effectiveness and scalability [26–30].

5. Discussion

The study demonstrates the economic viability of fleet-based 5G extensions with 2–3-year break-even, driven by: reduced dependence on expensive satellite communications, new premium-service revenue streams, operational savings through improved fleet management, and scalability to additional routes. Value propositions differ by stakeholder: large vessel operators cut connectivity costs ~40% with better quality and new revenues; mobile operators gain market expansion and infrastructure optimization, especially cross-border; small vessel operators gain affordable high-speed connectivity with efficiency and safety benefits. Regional strategies must be tailored: Baltic/Danish Straits — optimization for regular ferry routes and cross-border coordination leveraging predictable movements; Aegean — island-infrastructure integration, seasonal capacity management, and multi-jurisdictional complexity.

Implementation challenges remain: initial capital investment, cross-border regulatory compliance, technical standardization needs, and legacy-system integration. Policy implications call for: harmonized cross-border maritime-5G regulation, early-adopter investment incentives, technical standards for maritime 5G equipment, and international cooperation frameworks. Regulatory implications span spectrum-allocation harmonization and roaming agreements [46, 47] — Northern Europe benefits from established cooperation frameworks while Mediterranean deployments need new mechanisms — plus evolving maritime/logistics regulations driving data transparency and secure exchange, including EMSW under Regulation (EU) 2019/1239 [48] with its unified digital reporting interface, against common limits on frequency licensing, spectrum allocation, cross-border coordination, deployment siting and interference management.

6. Conclusions

This study demonstrates the technical feasibility and economic viability of maritime 5G networks via vessel-based relay stations across European maritime regions: the comprehensive analysis of 1.5 billion AIS data points across the Baltic and Mediterranean reveals major connectivity-improvement opportunities with regional differences demanding tailored strategies. The Danish Straits, with concentrated cargo/tanker traffic (64%) on defined corridors, enable efficient ship-optimized lane deployment; the Aegean's dispersed archipelagic geography (cargo/tankers in over 97% of cells) needs a broader strategy combining vessel relays with fixed island installations, with future work on geographic/weather effects especially for routing algorithms.

The economic assessment confirms financial viability with 2–3-year break-even when properly scaled and managed: vessel-based 5G relays achieve 80–90% key-corridor coverage while cutting connectivity costs up to 40% versus satellite, with investments of EUR 70,000–100,000 per large-vessel installation and EUR 1000–1200 for smaller vessels, and operating costs stabilizing near EUR 40,000 per vessel annually. Dual-use applications strengthen the case: 5G-enabled drones could cut annual costs from EUR 5.1M to 1.85M while improving response times 75% and increasing operational hours tenfold — the Aegean breaking even faster (0.8 years with commercial sharing) than the Straits (1.9 years).

Technical performance confirms effective 10–20 km inter-vessel ranges, with multi-hop coverage extending ~10.4 km from shore (and ~9 km trial extension at TRL 6–7 without special configurations), while current limits — 10–13 ms extra RTT per hop from traversing multiple RANs/5GCs — should be resolved by future mIAB, PN-NPN and TN-NTN 3GPP features. Cross-border compliance, standardization and integration challenges persist, with policy recommendations for harmonized regulation, incentives and cooperation frameworks. Future research should optimize base-station placement for dynamic maritime environments, build seasonal economic models, explore further dual-use applications, and integrate satellite with maritime 5G for comprehensive beyond-coastal coverage.