Land efficiency of renewable energy in Norway: A synthesis of footprint and production density

Abstract

Our investigation into the land area required for renewable energy sources in Norway's portfolio—encompassing various types of hydropower, onshore wind, and solar energy—emphasizes the importance of production density (GWh/km²) as a metric for comparing their land use efficiency for electricity production. Utilizing high-resolution Norwegian aerial imagery and geodatabases, we assessed 288 power plants, with a focus on current land use and projected needs by 2050.

Results show that large run-of-river and small hydropower exhibit the highest production densities, at 1,264 and 350–396 GWh/km², respectively. Onshore wind shows the lowest production density, 55 GWh/km², indicating lower land utilization. Solar power shows a modest production density of 80 GWh/km². Our analysis of hourly consumption and onshore wind production data (2010–2023) highlights the importance of storage hydropower in balancing onshore wind variability. One TWh of expected onshore wind energy output requires 0.19 TWh of hydropower storage. Projections show 278–512 km² of land needed by 2050 due to onshore wind and solar power development, emphasizing the need for comprehensive planning to mitigate land competition and reduce associated impacts. This research advocates for a balanced renewable energy approach, integrating environmental considerations with climate change mitigation.

1. Introduction

The transition toward renewable energy sources forms a cornerstone of global efforts to mitigate climate change. As nations commit to reducing carbon emissions, the deployment of renewable energy technologies is expanding rapidly, raising important questions about land use. Each renewable energy source—hydropower, wind, and solar—has a distinct land footprint per unit of electricity produced, and understanding these differences is essential for sustainable energy planning. Norway, which generates approximately 98% of its electricity from renewable sources—with hydropower dominating (85%)—provides a unique case study for assessing land efficiency of renewable energy.

Despite the widespread recognition of renewable energy as a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels, the associated land footprint is rarely subjected to systematic scrutiny in energy studies. The expansion of wind and solar power requires substantial land areas, potentially competing with agriculture, forestry, and protected natural areas. This land competition has implications for biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and traditional land use. Production density (GWh/km²) provides a standardized metric for comparing these spatial impacts across different energy technologies.

This study aims to bridge the knowledge gap by synthesizing and standardizing land use and production density data across Norway's renewable energy portfolio. Using high-resolution aerial imagery and national power plant registries, we analyzed 288 power plants across three main types: hydropower (including large run-of-river, small, and storage), onshore wind, and solar PV. Hourly consumption patterns were integrated to assess storage requirements for intermittent energy sources. This synthesis provides a comprehensive picture of the relative land efficiency of Norway's renewable energy sources while highlighting planning challenges for future expansion through 2050.

2. Data and Methods

The study methodology comprised four main components. First, high-resolution Norwegian aerial imagery (from the Norwegian Mapping Authority) and national geospatial databases were used to map the precise land footprint of 288 power plants. Specific plant areas and associated buffer zones were obtained through GIS analysis of historical and current aerial imagery. Reservoir areas for hydropower, turbine and infrastructure footprint for wind, and panel area for solar were delineated separately.

Second, annual production data were compiled from national grid operator records (Statnett) and the Norwegian energy database (NVE). Production density (GWh/km²) was calculated by dividing each plant's annual electricity output by its associated land area. Plants were analyzed by type: large run-of-river hydropower (>10 MW), small hydropower (<10 MW), storage hydropower, onshore wind farms, and solar PV installations.

Third, hourly consumption and wind production data for 2010–2023 were analyzed to assess the relationship between wind variability and hydropower storage requirements. Storage needs were quantified by calculating the gap between wind production and consumption patterns, with storage hydropower as the flexible balancing source. Fourth, future expansion projections through 2050 were developed based on national energy targets and wind and solar expansion scenarios to estimate the additional land area required.

3. Results

Analysis of production density across 288 power plants showed substantial variation among renewable energy technologies. Large run-of-river hydropower exhibited the highest production density at 1,264 GWh/km², followed by small hydropower at 350–396 GWh/km². Storage hydropower showed a moderate production density of 120 GWh/km², lower than run-of-river due to large reservoir areas relative to output. Onshore wind showed the lowest production density at 55 GWh/km², indicating that each square kilometer of land devoted to wind power produces substantially less electricity compared to hydropower. Solar power showed a moderate production density of 80 GWh/km².

In terms of overall land footprint distribution across Norway, hydropower occupies the largest total land area due to extensive reservoirs, but its high production density compensates for this extent. Onshore wind, despite its smaller footprint per individual installation, requires more land per unit of electricity produced, making it the least land-efficient among the analyzed technologies.

Hourly consumption and wind production analysis (2010–2023) revealed significant variability in wind output, requiring support from storage hydropower for grid balancing. One TWh of expected wind energy output requires 0.19 TWh of hydropower storage capacity. Projections through 2050 indicate additional land requirements of 278 to 512 km², driven primarily by onshore wind and solar expansion. This land demand is concentrated in areas with high wind and solar potential, often overlapping with existing environmental and agricultural interests.

4. Discussion

The results highlight significant trade-offs among renewable energy technologies with respect to land efficiency. Hydropower, particularly run-of-river, offers the highest production density, making it the most land-efficient option in the Norwegian energy portfolio. However, new reservoir creation is limited by environmental regulations, land-use considerations, and the scarcity of suitable undeveloped sites. This means that most future renewable expansion in Norway is likely to come from onshore wind and solar power—the sources with the lowest production density.

The high land footprint of wind and solar power raises important questions for land-use planning. As Norway aims to expand its renewable capacity, balancing energy generation with land use will be crucial. Potential trade-offs include habitat loss, impacts on traditional livelihoods such as reindeer herding and agriculture, and landscape transformation. Strategic siting, including avoidance of protected areas and development of offshore wind, can help mitigate some of these pressures.

The analysis of required hydropower storage capacity for balancing wind power illustrates the interconnectedness of renewable sources in Norway. Land efficiency is not only about the production density of each individual source but also about how they work together in a coherent energy system. Norway's existing storage capacity allows for significant wind integration, but further wind expansion would require either additional storage capacity or export of surplus through interconnectors.

5. Conclusions

This study provides the first comprehensive synthesis of land-use efficiency across Norway's entire renewable energy portfolio. Using high-resolution aerial imagery, national production data, and forward-looking projections, we have demonstrated that production density (GWh/km²) is a valuable metric for comparing the land footprint of alternative energy technologies. Hydropower offers the greatest land efficiency, while wind and solar power—the sources most likely to drive future expansion—require substantially more land per unit of electricity.

With projections indicating 278–512 km² of additional land needed by 2050, there is a pressing need for comprehensive, integrated planning that balances renewable energy targets with land conservation priorities. This research advocates for incorporating land efficiency metrics into national energy planning, considering not only production density but also the interactions between different renewable sources and associated energy storage needs. Such a balanced approach—integrating environmental considerations and climate change mitigation goals—is essential for Norway's sustainable energy future.

References

Kenawi, M.S., Hedger, R.D., Alfredsen, K.T., Sandercock, B.K., Korpås, M., Bakken, T.H. (2025). Land efficiency of renewable energy in Norway: A synthesis of footprint and production density. Renewable Energy, 252, 123514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2025.123514

Full reference list (28+ sources) available in the original article on ScienceDirect.